Mexico’s Lost Civilizations: The Mayas, Aztecs, and Toltecs

The Mayas: Masters of Astronomy and Architecture

The Mayan civilization, flourishing from around 2000 BCE to 1500 CE, was known for its advanced knowledge of astronomy, mathematics, and architecture. Their cities, adorned with massive pyramids and intricate carvings, were centers of culture and power.

Chichen Itza: The City of the Feathered Serpent

Chichen Itza is one of the most famous and impressive archaeological landmarks of the Maya civilization. The name „Chichen Itza“ ties into the idea of a sacred site of the Itza people near a cenote, with the mouth (chi) symbolizing an entrance or connection to the spiritual world.

The Sacred Cenote was a key site for these rituals, where both humans and valuable objects were offered to the gods. The iconic Temple of Kukulkan (El Castillo) played an important role in religious practices, as its design was aligned with astronomical events, such as the equinoxes, which were marked by elaborate ceremonies. This temple was chosen as one of the New Seven Wonders of the world in a global poll in 2007.

During the spring and autumn equinoxes, the setting sun creates the illusion of a serpent slithering down the pyramid’s steps—an incredible testament to the Maya’s astronomical precision. A time-lapse video showing this phenomenon is available here.

Brief profile Chichen Itza

Location	Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico
Nearby towns	Valladolid lies 40 kilometers (25 miles) to the east. Merida, the capital of Yucatán, is about 120 kilometers (75 miles) away. Cancún is approximately 190 kilometers (118 miles) away.
Peak Period	7th and 10th centuries AD
Size	25 square kilometers (around 10 square miles)
Population	30,000 and 50,000
Main structures	Temple of Kukulkan (El Castillo) Great Ball Court The Observatory (El Caracol) The Sacred Cenote
Cultural Significance	Political, economic, and religious center of the Maya civilization
Designation	UNESCO World Heritage Site (1988) New Seven Wonders of the World (2007)

Chichen Itza Today

Chichén Itzá is by far the most visited archaeological site in Mexico. It attracts 2.3 million visitors each year. Located just about a 2.5-hour drive from Cancun International Airport, it is a popular day trip for bus tourists heading to the site. When we visited Chichén Itzá in July 2021, during the COVID-19 pandemic, there were many loud vendors selling their goods near the temples to the crowds of tourists, which greatly diminished the magical atmosphere I had imagined this place must have once had.

Uxmal: The City of the Three Times Built

Uxmal was once one of the most important Maya cities, known for its impressive Puuc-style architecture. Today it is less well-known. The exact meaning of „Uxmal“ is debated, but one interpretation is that it comes from the Yucatec Maya words ox-mal, meaning „three times built“. This could suggest that the city was rebuilt multiple times or underwent three major construction phases. However, some scholars argue that the name might have a different or more symbolic meaning rather than a literal one.

The Pyramid of the Magician, with its unusual oval shape, is steeped in legend. According to myth, it was built overnight by a magical dwarf who later became the city’s ruler.

Brief profile Uxmal

Location	Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico
Nearby towns	Mérida is located approximately 80 kilometers (50 miles) to the north.
Peak Period	9th and 10th centuries AD
Size	1.5 square kilometers (around 0.6 square miles)
Population	25,000
Main structures	Pyramid of the Magician Nunnery Quadrangle Governor’s Palace
Cultural Significance	One of the major cities of the Maya civilization, known for its unique Puuc architectural style.
Designation	UNESCO World Heritage Site (1996)

Uxmal Today

Today, approximately 300,000 tourists visit Uxmal each year, which is roughly 10% of the crowds that Chichén Itzá attracts. Although it is a somewhat lesser-known archaeological site, Uxmal offers a quieter alternative for visitors who want to experience impressive Maya architecture in a less crowded setting. Additionally, visitors can swim in the nearby cenotes, providing a refreshing break after exploring the ruins.

Palenque: The Hidden Gem of the Jungle

Palenque, deep in the Chiapas rainforest, is a well-preserved archaeological site of the Maya civilization. It holds some of the most intricate Mayan carvings. The Temple of the Inscriptions contains the tomb of the great ruler Pakal the Great, whose jade mask and sarcophagus are among the most stunning finds in Mesoamerican archaeology. The original tomb including his sarcophagus lid are displayed today in the Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.

The word „Palenque“ comes from the Spanish term for a „fence,“ „enclosure,“ or „platform.“ Some believe that the original name of the city was lost, and the term „Palenque“ was used by early Spanish explorers to describe the site.

Brief profile Palenque

Location	Chiapas, Mexico
Nearby towns	San Cristóbal de las Casas is located around 140 kilometers (87 miles) to the east.  Villahermosa, the capital of Tabasco, is about 120 kilometers (75 miles) to the west.
Peak Period	7th century AD
Size	2.5 square kilometers (around 1 square mile)
Population	6,000-8,000
Main structures	Temple of the Inscriptions Palace Temple of the Cross Tomb of Pakal
Cultural Significance	A major Maya city-state, known for its advanced architecture and inscriptions, and for being the burial site of the ruler Pakal the Great.
Designation	UNESCO World Heritage Site (1987)

Palenque Today

Palenque is located near the present-day town of Palenque, in the state of Chiapas, Mexico. The town is relatively small, with a population of about 40,000 to 50,000 people. It serves as the main gateway for visitors to the archaeological site, offering accommodations, some great restaurants and services for tourists exploring the ruins. The town itself has a laid-back atmosphere and is surrounded by the lush Chiapas jungle, making it a great base for visiting the ancient city.

Yaxchilán: A Hidden Jewel of the Rainforest

Yaxchilán is famous for its detailed hieroglyphic inscriptions and sculptures depicting powerful rulers. The city’s lintels show scenes of bloodletting rituals, where kings and queens offered their own blood to communicate with the gods.

The name „Yaxchilán“ roughly translates to ‚Green Place‘ in the Maya language, likely serving as a metaphorical reference to the region’s landscape and resources.

Brief profile Yaxchilán

Location	Chiapas, Mexico
Nearby towns	Frontera Corozal, located about 25 kilometers (15 miles) away, is the nearest settlement to the archaeological site, and border town to Guatemala. Palenque is about 130 kilometers (81 miles) to the southwest.
Peak Period	7th-9th century AD
Size	10 square kilometers (around 3.9 square mile)
Population	20,000-30,000
Main structures	Temple 33 (one of the most famous structures) The Great Plaza Structure 40 (known for its impressive stelae) Stelae and Lintels with detailed inscriptions
Cultural Significance	Yaxchilan was an important Maya city-state known for its powerful rulers and intricate stone carvings. The site is famous for its well-preserved hieroglyphic inscriptions and detailed artwork depicting political and ritual events.
Designation	Part of the Maya Sites of the Usumacinta River region (not an official UNESCO site but considered of great cultural importance)

Yaxchilán Today

Today, Yaxchilán remains a relatively remote and tranquil archaeological site, attracting fewer tourists compared to other Maya cities. It is accessible by a 45 minutes boat from the nearby town of Frontera Corozal. The journey is a scenic experience, offering views of the lush jungle and the Usumacinta river, adding to the overall sense of adventure and isolation before arriving at the ancient site.

Though still relatively under-visited, Yaxchilan’s historical significance and stunning carvings continue to draw archaeologists, historians, and travelers seeking to explore one of the most fascinating and remote Maya sites.

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The Toltecs: Warriors and Architects of Myth

The Toltecs preceded the Aztecs and ruled central Mexico between the 10th and 12th centuries. They were skilled builders and warriors, blending their culture with that of earlier Mesoamerican societies.

Teotihuacan: The Place of the Gods

Teotihuacán is one of the most significant and awe-inspiring ancient cities in Mesoamerica. Although its exact founders remain unknown, the Toltecs later claimed Teotihuacán as their ancestral city. This massive metropolis features the Pyramid of the Sun, the third-largest pyramid in the world, and the Pyramid of the Moon, both perfectly aligned with celestial bodies. The Avenue of the Dead, lined with temples and palaces, still echoes with the mysteries of the past.

Between 300 and 550 AD, Teotihuacán was the largest city in the world, with an estimated population of 100,000 to 200,000 people. It was an economic and cultural center, often compared to modern-day New York City in terms of its influence.

When the Aztecs arrived at the site in the fourteenth century AD, it was already abandoned. Unable to believe that such structures had been built by mere humans, they attributed its construction to giants or divine beings from a previous age. They named the site „The Place Where the Gods Dwell“ or „The Place of the Gods“—in Nahuatl: Teotihuacán.

Obsidian and Trade: The Key to Teotihuacán’s Wealth

Teotihuacán achieved its enormous wealth and power through a strategic combination of trade, resource management, and political influence. A particularly crucial factor was its control over obsidian, a valuable volcanic glass used for making weapons, tools, and ritual objects. The city dominated the most important obsidian deposits, especially the Pachuca mines, known for their high-quality green obsidian. This resource turned Teotihuacán into a trade hub of Mesoamerica, as it was exported to various cultures, including the Maya, Zapotecs, and Mixtecs. In addition to obsidian, the city thrived through the trade of ceramics, feathers, cacao, and textiles, further strengthening its economic power. Its strategic location and highly organized craftsmanship made Teotihuacán the dominant metropolis of its time, with influence extending far beyond the Valley of Mexico.

Teotihuacán and the Maya: An Alliance Beyond Time

Carlos Castaneda’s Mystical Vision of Teotihuacan

My first encounter with Teotihuacan was through Carlos Castaneda. In The Journey to Ixtlan (1972) Teotihuacan is depicted as a place of spiritual transformation. Castaneda describes how he learns certain shamanic practices like „the fire from within“ and enters „other realities“ by transcending ordinary consciousness.

Certain interpretations suggest that ancient Toltec sorcerers could manipulate reality through their mastery of perception. They claim that the pyramids were not built in the conventional way but were instead transported by the power of thought from a parallel world. This idea suggests that ancient Toltec and Maya sorcerers could shift dimensions and materialize structures into our world through their knowledge of accessing the fire from within. The Avenue of the Dead is said to refer to sorcerers who have died in this process.

Castaneda’s work and its interpretations highlight Teotihuacán as a place of profound spiritual and cultural significance, emphasizing the transformation of consciousness. It challenges us to view Teotihuacán not merely as a relic of the past, but as a living source of spiritual teaching and practice.

Brief profile Teotihuacan

Location	State of Mexico (near Mexico City)
Nearby towns	San Juan Teotihuacán, located just a few kilometers from the archaeological site, serves as the main gateway for visitors. Mexico City is located about 50 kilometers (31 miles) Southwest.
Peak Period	1st to 7th centuries AD
Size	20 square kilometers (around 7.7 square mile)
Population	100,000-200,000
Main structures	Pyramid of the Sun Pyramid of the Moon Temple of the Feathered Serpent (Quetzalcoatl) Avenue of the Dead
Cultural Significance	Teotihuacan was one of the most influential cities in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. It was a major center of culture, politics, and religion, and is known for its massive pyramids and impressive urban planning. It left a lasting impact on later civilizations, including the Aztecs, who revered it as a sacred city.
Designation	UNESCO World Heritage Site (1987)

Teotihuacan Today

Cholula: The Greatest Pyramid of Mankind

Cholula, a city that was deeply influenced by the Toltecs, became a major cultural and religious hub in pre-Columbian times. Cholula was dedicated to the worship of the god Quetzalcoatl (the Feathered Serpent).

The name Cholula comes from the Nahuatl language, and it is often interpreted as „Place of the Refuge,“ as Cholula was a significant religious center in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica.

The Great Pyramid of Cholula (known as Tlachihualtepetl) is the largest pyramid by volume in the world. The construction likely began around 200 BCE and continued until approximately 900 CE, spanning more than 1000 years! During this time, the pyramid grew in multiple phases, with each stage expanding and enlarging the structure. Thus, the Cholulans did not build the pyramid in a single construction phase, but rather in various stages, with each extension overlapping the previous structure and further enlarging the temple.

When the Spanish arrived, they built a church on top of it, creating a striking fusion of indigenous and colonial influences. Inside, a labyrinth of tunnels reveals the pyramid’s ancient grandeur. The tunnels can be visited.

Brief profile Cholula

Location	Puebla, Mexico
Nearby towns	Puebla City, the capital of the state of the same name, is located about 15 kilometers (9 miles) to the southeast, San Andrés Cholula is located just a few kilometers from the archaeological site.
Peak Period	2nd to 16th centuries AD
	20 square kilometers (around 7.7 square mile)
Population	100,000
Main structures	Great Pyramid of Cholula (Tlachihualtepetl): The largest pyramid by volume in the world Cholula Archaeological Site: Includes temples, plazas, and residential areas Church of Nuestra Señora de los Remedios: Built atop the Great Pyramid during Spanish colonial rule
Cultural Significance	Cholula was a major religious and cultural center for the Nahua people, and it was dedicated to the god Quetzalcoatl. The site is renowned for its impressive Great Pyramid, and Cholula is considered one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the Americas.
Designation	Part of the Pre-Hispanic City and National Park of Xochimilco (not an official site but recognized for its cultural importance)

Cholula Today

If one didn’t know any better, you would never guess that the church, Iglesia de Nuestra Señora de los Remedios, sits atop the remnants of a pyramid, as the structure remains largely hidden beneath layers of earth. There is a labyrinth of tunnels beneath the Great Pyramid of Cholula that can be visited. They lead through the inner sections of the pyramid, providing a fascinating look at the ancient structures and the complexity of the construction.

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Visitor Numbers and Entrance fees for Major Mexican Archaeological Sites

Here are the entrance fees of the archaeological sites described in this article, ranked by the number of visitors they receive annually.

Site	Annual Visitors	Entrance Fee (Foreigners)
Chichen Itza	2.3 million	643 MXN (approx. 31 USD)
Teotihuacan	1.2 million	85 MXN (approx. 4 USD)
Uxmal	300,000	413 MXN (approx. 20 USD)
Palenque	200,000	194 MXN (approx. 9,50 USD)
Cholula	100,000	85 MXN (approx. 4 USD)
Yaxchilan	10,000	90 MXN (approx. 4,50 USD)

The Ultimate Pyramid Showdown: Which One is the Best?

People often ask what the best place I’ve visited in Mexico was. If I had to pick just one place that I could visit again, it would be Teotihuacan. The hot air balloon flight over the site was the most amazing experience I’ve had in Mexico. If I had to choose my favorite pyramid, it would be the Pyramid of the Moon at Teotihuacan. The biggest surprise was Uxmal, as I hadn’t expected it to be so impressive. The greatest adventure was the visit to Yaxchilan. The biggest disappointment was Chichen Itza. While the Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent is iconic and the structure is strikingly beautiful, the atmosphere there was almost unbearable. Palenque was the most polished and well-maintained of the sites.

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Why the Maya Civilization Declined

The Maya civilization has always fascinated me. They were one of the first civilizations to use the concept of zero in their number system as early as the 4th century AD. Their calendar system incorporated the idea of cyclical time, suggesting that events and time repeat in cycles, which is distinct from the linear perception of time in most other cultures. Despite their impressive achievements in architecture, mathematics, and astronomy, the Maya civilization eventually fell—and not because they didn’t adopt the wheel for practical use.

I wanted to explore the factors that contributed to the decline of such a remarkable culture. Understanding what caused the collapse of a sophisticated society like the Maya has helped me better understand what we can improve in the society we live in today.

The decline of the Maya civilization remains one of the great mysteries of history. While there is no single explanation, several factors likely contributed to the eventual collapse of their classic cities between the 8th and 9th centuries AD.

By the time the Spanish arrived in the Americas in the 16th century the great Mayan cities were largely abandoned, the Mayan temples had already fallen into disrepair and their culture had dispersed into smaller, scattered communities. When the Spanish conquerors entered the Yucatan region, they found ruins that spoke of the once mighty civilization. Despite this, the legacy of the Maya civilization continues to influence the region today.

The Legacy Lives On

While the classic Maya cities experienced a decline, the Maya culture did not disappear entirely. Many Maya people and their descendants continued to live in the region, and their traditions, language, and knowledge live on today. The Maya legacy is evident in modern-day indigenous communities in Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador, where their rich cultural heritage and historical sites continue to inspire awe and respect.

With the colonization by the Spanish, eventually all Pre-Columbian civilizations vanished. However, their With the colonization by the Spanish, all Pre-Columbian civilizations eventually vanished. However, their remarkable achievements continue to inspire. The Mayans’ astronomical calculations, the Toltecs’ artistic innovations, and the Aztecs’ engineering feats all played a pivotal role in shaping the rich cultural heritage of Mexico. Today, these ancient ruins stand as enduring monuments to the brilliance of Mexico’s lost civilizations, inviting travelers to uncover their secrets.

Are You Ready to Explore?

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